History of Bharatpur, Dholpur, Karauli, Tonk, Jhunjhunu States & Parmar Dynasty

1. Chapter and Exam Relevance#

1.1 Regional Scope and Syllabus Weightage#

• This chapter provides an exhaustive, examination-oriented study of the distinct princely states of eastern and central Rajasthan and the ancient Paramara dynasty.
• It covers:
• 1. The Sinsinwar Jat Kingdom of Bharatpur (Badan Singh, Maharaja Surajmal, Jawahar Singh, Ranjit Singh, Lohagarh Fort, and Deeg Palaces).
• 2. The Bamraulia Jat Kingdom of Dholpur (Rana Kirat Singh, 1806 British settlement, Nihal Tower, and 1857 Revolt).
• 3. The Jadaun Yaduvanshi State of Karauli (Arjun Pal 1348 CE, First British Subsidiary Treaty of Nov 1817, Madan Mohan Ji Temple, and 1857 relief to Kota).
• 4. The State of Tonk (The only Muslim princely state of Rajasthan, founded by Nawab Muhammad Amir Khan Pindari in 1817, Sunhari Kothi, and APRI Institute).
• 5. Jhunjhunu and Shekhawati (Maharao Shekha, Shardul Singh, the Panchpana thikanas, Raja Ajit Singh of Khetri and Swami Vivekananda, and fresco havelis).
• 6. The Paramara Dynasty (Agnikula origin on Mount Abu, Malwa branch with Raja Bhoja and Munja, Abu branch with Dharavarsha, and Kiradu/Vagad branches).
• Exam Relevance: Consistently yields 3 to 5 questions across RPSC (RAS, School Lecturer, Senior Teacher) and RSSB (CET, Patwar, VDO, Police Constable, Junior Accountant).

1.2 High-Yield Focal Points for RPSC and RSSB#

• Core Areas Tested:
• • Maharaja Surajmal: Epithets "Plato of the Jats" and "Jaton ka Aflatun"; foundation of Lohagarh (1733 CE); Deeg water palaces; advice during the Third Battle of Panipat (1761 CE); capture of Agra.
• • British Resistance at Lohagarh: Lord Lake attacked Lohagarh Fort 5 times in 1805 during Maharaja Ranjit Singh’s reign while pursuing Jaswant Rao Holkar, failing completely.
• • First Subsidiary Alliance of 1817: Karauli signed first on 9 November 1817 under Maharaja Harbaksh Pal.
• • 1857 Revolt Roles: Maharaja Madan Pal of Karauli sent a 2,000-strong army to rescue Maharao Ram Singh II of Kota (salute increased from 15 to 17 guns); Dholpur rebels captured power for two months until Patiala forces intervened; Mir Alam Khan led rebel troops in Tonk.
• • Raja Bhoja of Dhar: Authored 84 scholarly treatises including Saraswati Kanthabharana, Samarangana Sutradhara, and Yukti Kalpataru; founded Bhojshala.
• • Dharavarsha Parmar of Abu: Shot 3 water-buffaloes with a single arrow; defeated Muhammad Ghori at Kasahrada (1178 CE).
• • Khetri Connection: Raja Ajit Singh bestowed the name "Vivekananda" on Swami Vivekananda in 1893 and sponsored his Chicago journey.

2. Core Strategic Themes and Overview#

2.1 Geopolitical Synthesis of Regional Kingdoms#

• The kingdoms studied in this chapter represent diverse ethnic and sociopolitical lineages that balanced power between Delhi, Agra, the Marathas, and the British:
• 1. The Jats of Bharatpur and Dholpur established sturdy peasant-warrior states adjacent to the imperial Mughal capitals of Delhi and Agra, mastering siege warfare and mud fortifications.
• 2. Karauli preserved an ancient Yadava heritage and served as a vital cultural crossroads between Mewar, Dhundhar, and Gwalior.
• 3. Tonk emerged out of the Pindari military confederacy of central India, created directly by British diplomatic policy in 1817 as an Afghan-Rohilla principality.
• 4. Shekhawati operated as a confederacy of semi-autonomous thikanas (Panchpana) that fostered flourishing mercantile haveli architecture financed by Marwari-Oswal traders.
• 5. The Paramaras represented the classical Rajput martial order whose cultural and architectural glory spanned central and western India.

2.2 Key Historical Epithets and Identities#

• Vital Identities for Exams:
• • Badan Singh: Conferred the title "Brajraj" (King of Braj) by Sawai Jai Singh II of Jaipur in 1722 CE.
• • Maharaja Surajmal: Universally known as "The Plato of the Jat Tribe" and "The Ulysses of the Jats" (Jaton ka Aflatun) for his statesmanship, strategic vision, and unmatched wisdom.
• • Lohagarh Fort: Termed "Ajay Durg" (The Unconquered Citadel) because its thick mud ramparts absorbed cannonballs harmlessly.
• • Nawab Amir Khan: Recognized as the sovereign ruler of Tonk in 1817; former ally of Yashwantrao Holkar.
• • Raja Bhoja: Revered as "Kaviraja" (King of Poets); emblem of polymathic scholarship and temple aesthetics.
• • Dharavarsha Parmar: Celebrated as the invincible defender of Chandravati and Mount Abu.

3. Bharatpur and Dholpur States (Jat Dynasties)#

3.1 Bharatpur State: Origins and Early Leaders#

• The Jat agrarian population of the Braj region rose in open rebellion against the oppressive taxation and religious intolerance of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb.
• Key Pioneers:
• 1. Gokula Jat (1669 CE): Zamindar of Tilpat; organized thousands of Jat peasants; fought the Battle of Tilpat against Mughal Faujdar Abdun Nabi; killed in action.
• 2. Raja Ram Jat (1686–1688 CE): Chieftain of Sinsini; adopted guerrilla tactics; raided the imperial tomb of Akbar at Sikandra in 1688, excavating and burning Akbar’s bones; slain in battle against Prince Bidar Bakht and Raja Bishan Singh of Amber.
• 3. Churaman Jat (1695–1721 CE): Nephew of Raja Ram; established the mud fort of Thun; served Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah I; committed suicide in 1721 after internal family discord.
• 4. Badan Singh (1722–1755 CE): Nephew of Churaman; true founder of Bharatpur State. Sawai Jai Singh II of Jaipur recognized him as leader of the Jats, conferring the title "Brajraj" and granting the pargana of Deeg. Badan Singh fortified Deeg, Kumher, Bharatpur, and Wair.

3.2 Maharaja Surajmal: Zenith of Jat Power#

• Maharaja Surajmal (1755–1763 CE), adopted son and successor of Badan Singh, elevated Bharatpur to the status of a premier imperial power in 18th-century India.
• Key Achievements:
• 1. Foundation of Lohagarh (1733 CE): Captured Bharatpur from Khemkaran Sogaria and began the construction of Lohagarh Fort, an impregnable earthen-walled fort surrounded by the water-filled Sujan Ganga canal.
• 2. Deeg Water Palaces: Constructed the world-renowned palace complex at Deeg, including Gopal Bhavan, Suraj Bhavan, and magnificent gardens with dynamic gravity-fed fountains.
• 3. Battle of Kumher (1754 CE): Besieged by Maratha forces under Malharrao Holkar; Khanderao Holkar (Malharrao’s son and Ahilyabai’s husband) was killed by a swivel gun from Kumher fort; siege lifted after peace mediation by Sawai Madho Singh I.
• 4. Panipat Advice (1761 CE): Advised Maratha commander Sadashivrao Bhau before the Third Battle of Panipat to keep families and heavy baggage behind in Bharatpur or Gwalior and adopt traditional guerrilla warfare; Bhau rejected this advice.
• 5. Humanitarian Aid: Following the catastrophic Maratha defeat at Panipat, Surajmal and Maharani Kishori sheltered, clothed, and fed over 50,000 wounded Maratha soldiers and refugees for months.
• 6. Capture of Agra (1761 CE): Surajmal captured the historic Mughal capital of Agra, seizing immense imperial artillery and treasury.
• 7. Martyrdom: Ambushed during a night skirmish near the Hindon River in Shahdara (Delhi) against Rohilla Afghan chief Najib-ud-Daula on 25 December 1763.

3.3 Maharaja Jawahar Singh and Ranjit Singh#

• Maharaja Jawahar Singh (1763–1768 CE):
• • Invaded Delhi in 1765 CE to avenge his father’s death, plundering the Red Fort.
• • Brought the monumental Ashtadhatu Gates (eight-metal gates, originally carried away from Chittorgarh Fort by Alauddin Khalji in 1303 CE) and installed them at the northern gate of Lohagarh Fort.
• • Constructed the Jawahar Burj inside Lohagarh Fort to celebrate his Delhi triumph; this burj served as the traditional site for the royal coronation of subsequent Bharatpur rulers.
• Maharaja Ranjit Singh (1771–1805 CE):
• • Signed an initial friendship treaty with the British in September 1803.
• • In late 1804, granted political asylum to Maratha warrior Jaswant Rao Holkar when pursued by British forces.
• • British Commander Lord Lake laid siege to Lohagarh Fort five times between January and April 1805; despite ferocious bombardments, the British suffered over 3,000 casualties and failed to penetrate the mud walls, earning Lohagarh its title "The Unconquered Fort".
• • Ranjit Singh eventually concluded a negotiated treaty in April 1805.

3.4 Dholpur State: Foundation and Historical Trajectory#

• Dholpur was ruled by the Bamraulia clan of Jats, who originally held Gohad fort in central India under the royal title "Rana".
• Key Milestones:
• 1. Gohad Exchange (1805–1806 CE): Following prolonged wars between Rana Chhatar Singh and the Scindias, the British concluded a treaty with Daulat Rao Scindia. Under the 1806 settlement, Rana Kirat Singh surrendered Gohad to Scindia and received Dholpur, Bari, and Rajakhera from the British, formally founding Dholpur State in 1806 CE.
• 2. 1857 Revolt in Dholpur: Under Rana Bhagwant Singh (Bhagwan Singh), mutinous forces from Gwalior and Indore (led by Deva and Ramchandra) entered Dholpur in October 1857, captured state artillery, and besieged the palace for two months until the ruler was rescued by forces dispatched by his relative, the Maharaja of Patiala.
• 3. Nihal Tower (Nihal Ghantaghar): Built by Maharaja Nihal Singh (reigned 1873–1901 CE), this 7-storey clock tower in Dholpur is the largest clock tower in Rajasthan (completed in 1910).
• 4. Merger: Maharana Udaibhan Singh signed the Instrument of Accession; Dholpur merged into the Matsya Union on 18 March 1948, with Udaibhan Singh appointed as its Rajpramukh.

4. Karauli and Tonk States (Yaduvanshi and Muslim States)#

4.1 Karauli State: Jadaun Yaduvamsha Heritage#

• Karauli was governed by the Jadaun branch of Yaduvanshi Rajputs, who trace their lineage to Lord Krishna.
• Dynastic Highlights:
• 1. Early Seats: Raja Vijay Pal founded Bayana in 1040 CE and erected Vijay Mandirgarh fort. Timan Pal built the formidable Timangarh Fort in 1100 CE.
• 2. Foundation of Karauli (1348 CE): Arjun Pal (Arjun Dev) founded the town of Kalyanpuri along the Bhadravati River in 1348 CE, which subsequently became known as Karauli.
• 3. Maharaja Gopal Singh (1724–1757 CE): Constructed the grand Madan Mohan Ji Temple inside Karauli, installing the sacred idol brought from Amer and Vrindavan. He also erected the massive stone city wall with six gates.
• 4. First British Treaty of Rajasthan (9 November 1817): Maharaja Harbaksh Pal concluded the Treaty of Subordinate Alliance with British Resident Charles Metcalfe on 9 November 1817. Karauli was the very FIRST princely state in Rajasthan to sign the 1817–1818 British treaties.
• 5. 1857 Role of Maharaja Madan Pal: When the Kota garrison revolted and placed Maharao Ram Singh II under house arrest, Maharaja Madan Pal of Karauli dispatched 2,000 soldiers with artillery to Kota, saving the Maharao and aiding British forces in recapturing Kota. In reward, the British increased Madan Pal’s gun salute from 15 to 17 guns.
• 6. Kela Devi Shrine: Karauli houses the revered shrine of Kuldevi Kela Devi on Trikut Hill, where the famous Chaitra Lakkhi Mela and Languriya folk songs are celebrated.

4.2 Tonk State: The Only Muslim Principality in Rajasthan#

• Tonk was the only Muslim-ruled princely state in Rajasthan, established during the collapse of the Maratha-Pindari confederacy.
• Key Aspects:
• 1. Foundation by Nawab Amir Khan (1817 CE): Muhammad Amir Khan, a daring Pashtun soldier of fortune and chief of the Pindari cavalry allied with Yashwantrao Holkar, was recognized as sovereign Nawab of Tonk by British Governor-General Lord Hastings on 15 November 1817 in exchange for disbanding his Pindari troops.
• 2. 1857 Revolt in Tonk: Nawab Wazir-ud-Daula supported the British, but his maternal uncle Mir Alam Khan and rebel state troops joined Tatya Tope when Tatya entered Tonk, besieging the Nawab in his fort.
• 3. Sunhari Kothi (Shish Mahal): Commissioned by Nawab Wazir-ud-Daula and completed by Ibrahim Ali Khan, this mansion features exquisite gilded glass, gold-leaf floral paintings, and polished mirrors.
• 4. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad Arabic and Persian Research Institute (APRI): Established in 1978 in Tonk, it houses over 23,000 rare manuscripts, including a massive handwritten 17th-century Quran and precious imperial Mughal farmans.
• 5. Camel Sacrifice Tradition: Mubarak Mahal in Tonk was historic for the state ritual of camel sacrifice on Eid-ul-Zuha.

5. Jhunjhunu State and Shekhawati (Shekhawat Dynasty)#

5.1 Maharao Shekha and Foundation of Shekhawati#

• The Shekhawat clan is a prominent branch of the Kachhwaha dynasty of Amer/Jaipur.
• Key Facts:
• 1. Maharao Shekha (1433–1488 CE): Born in 1433 CE to Mokal Singh of Amarsar with the blessings of Sufi saint Sheikh Burhan. In 1471 CE, Shekha declared sovereignty, refused to pay tribute to Amer ruler Chandrasen, and established the independent realm of Shekhawati with Amarsar as capital. He died heroically in the Battle of Singhasana (1488 CE); his cenotaph stands at Ralawata.
• 2. Jhunjhunu Origin: Originally founded by Jhunjhar (Jhunjha) Nehra Jat in the 14th century, it was subsequently taken over by Kaimkhani Muslims (descendants of Chauhan converts).
• 3. Shardul Singh Shekhawat (1730 CE): In 1730 CE, Shardul Singh Shekhawat captured Jhunjhunu after the demise of the last Kaimkhani Nawab Rohilla Khan, establishing Shekhawat supremacy over Jhunjhunu.

5.2 The Panchpana and Cultural Heritage of Shekhawati#

• 1. The Panchpana (Five Estates):
• Following Shardul Singh’s death in 1742 CE, his ancestral estate was divided equally among his five surviving sons, known historically as the Panchpana of Shekhawati:
• • Nawalgarh and Mandawa (Nawal Singh)
• • Khetri and Arooka (Bagh Singh)
• • Bissau and Mahansar (Keshri Singh)
• • Surajgarh (Suraj Mal)
• • Dundlod (Hanuwant Singh)
• 2. Raja Ajit Singh of Khetri and Swami Vivekananda:
• Raja Ajit Singh of Khetri was the foremost patron and disciple of Swami Vivekananda. In 1893, he bestowed the name "Vivekananda" on Narendra Nath Datta, presented him with saffron robes and a turban, and funded his passage to the World Parliament of Religions in Chicago. Vivekananda visited Khetri thrice.
• 3. Open Air Art Gallery:
• Shekhawati (Jhunjhunu, Nawalgarh, Mandawa, Fatehpur, Ramgarh) is renowned worldwide as the "Open Air Art Gallery" for its opulent frescoed havelis painted in the classical Alagila (Arayish) technique.
• 4. Rani Sati Temple: Situated in Jhunjhunu, it is dedicated to Narayani Bai (Dadi Ji).

6. The Paramara Dynasty (Malwa, Abu, Kiradu and Vagad)#

6.1 Agnikula Legend and Five Historical Branches#

• The Paramaras are one of the four Agnikula Rajput clans created by sage Vashistha from the sacrificial fire-altar atop Mount Abu, as recorded in Chand Bardai’s Prithviraj Raso, Padmagupta’s Navasahasankacharita, and epigraphs.
• Major Paramara Branches:
• 1. Malwa Branch (Dhar and Ujjain): The imperial branch founded by Upendra (Krishnaraja) in the early 9th century CE.
• 2. Abu Branch (Chandravati): Founded by Utpalaraja in the late 10th century CE; ruled from Chandravati on the Banas River.
• 3. Kiradu Branch (Barmer/Maru-Mandal): Centred at Kiratakupa (modern Kiradu near Barmer); built exquisite Nagara temples.
• 4. Vagad Branch (Arthuna/Banswara): Centred at Utthunaka (Arthuna in Banswara district); founded by Dambarsimha.
• 5. Jalore Branch: Ruled Kanchangiri (Jalore Fort) before being displaced by the Songara Chauhans in 1181 CE.

6.2 Malwa Branch: Munja and Raja Bhoja#

• 1. Vakpatiraja Munja (974–995 CE):
• • Powerful monarch and poet; assumed titles Utpalaraja, Amoghavarsha, and Prithvivallabha.
• • Defeated Western Chalukya King Tailapa II six consecutive times, but was captured and executed in the seventh campaign.
• • Patron of celebrated scholars: Dhananjaya (Dasharupaka), Padmagupta (Navasahasankacharita), and Halayudha.
• 2. Raja Bhoja (1010–1055 CE):
• • Pinnacle of Paramara glory; shifted capital from Ujjain to Dhar.
• • Renowned as "Kaviraja"; authored 84 treatises across literature, architecture, medicine, and philosophy:
• • Saraswati Kanthabharana (poetics and grammar)
• • Samarangana Sutradhara (temple architecture, town planning, and mechanical contrivances)
• • Yukti Kalpataru (statecraft, metallurgy, and shipbuilding)
• • Ayurveda Sarvasva (medicine)
• • Founded the Bhojshala (college and temple of Goddess Saraswati) at Dhar.
• • Built the monumental Bhojeshwar Shiva Temple at Bhojpur (housing one of the largest monolithic Shiva lingams in India) and Bhojpur Lake.
• Caution: Do not confuse Paramara Bhoja of Malwa (1010–1055 CE) with Pratihara Mihira Bhoja (836–885 CE).

6.3 Abu Branch: Dharavarsha and Cultural Sites#

• 1. Dharavarsha Parmar of Abu (1163–1219 CE):
• • Son of Yashodhavala; most celebrated warrior of the Abu Paramaras.
• • Feudatory commander of Chalukya Kumarapala and Bhima II.
• • Led the Rajput vanguard in the Battle of Kasahrada (1178 CE) at the foot of Mount Abu, inflicting a crushing defeat on Muhammad Ghori.
• • Renowned for archery: shot three water-buffaloes with a single arrow; a life-size stone statue at the Mandakini Kund near Achalgarh commemorates this feat.
• 2. Prahladana Deva:
• • Younger brother of Dharavarsha; noted scholar and playwright who authored the Sanskrit drama Partha Parakrama Vyayoga.
• • Founded Prahladanapur (modern Palanpur in Gujarat).
• 3. Kiradu Branch:
• • Someshwara Temple at Kiradu (Barmer), constructed in the Maru-Gurjara style, is celebrated as the "Khajuraho of Rajasthan".
• 4. Vagad Branch:
• • Mandleshwar Temple (1080 CE) at Arthuna in Banswara reflects exceptional Paramara temple architecture.

7. Chronological Timeline#

7.1 Chronology of Key Regional Milestones#

• Chronological roll of dates for examination revision.

Dates are CE; approximate early reigns vary by tradition. This is a selected timeline for examination revision.

8. Administration, Art, Havelis and Culture#

8.1 Administrative Structure and Revenue Terminology#

• Administrative Offices:
• • Ruler: Highest civil, military, and judicial authority (Maharaja in Bharatpur/Karauli; Rana in Dholpur; Nawab in Tonk; Maharao in Shekhawati).
• • Diwan / Wazir: Chief executive minister managing state revenues, accounts, and internal civil affairs.
• • Faujdar: Military garrison commander responsible for law and order and forts.
• • Bakhshi: Head of military pay, muster rolls, and troop logistics.
• • Kotwal: City administrator, policing markets, weights, and public safety.
• Revenue Terms:
• • Hasil / Mal: Agricultural land revenue.
• • Rahdari / Daan: Transit duty on trade caravans passing through border outposts.
• • Thikanas / Panchpana: Hereditary sub-fiefs exercising internal autonomy under the Shekhawat clan.

8.2 Architectural Heritage and Fresco Art#

• Forts and Monuments:
• 1. Lohagarh Fort (Bharatpur): Built by Surajmal; surrounded by a moat (Sujan Ganga); unique double mud-and-stone ramparts that made it impervious to British artillery in 1805.
• 2. Deeg Water Palaces: Features Gopal Bhavan, Suraj Bhavan, and massive overhead water reservoirs powering marble fountains.
• 3. Nihal Tower (Dholpur): 7-storey clock tower built by Maharaja Nihal Singh; largest in Rajasthan.
• 4. Timangarh Fort (Karauli): Historic hill fort built by Timan Pal in 1100 CE.
• 5. Sunhari Kothi (Tonk): Palace of gold-leaf mirrors and filigree woodwork, built under Nawab Wazir-ud-Daula.
• 6. Shekhawati Havelis: Known as the Open Air Art Gallery. Notable havelis include Poddar Haveli (Nawalgarh), Piramal Haveli (Baggar), Morarka Haveli (Nawalgarh), and Saraf Haveli (Mandawa), adorned with frescoes depicting mythology, trains, and British sahibs painted using the permanent Alagila (wet plaster) technique.

9. Quick Revision Matrix#

9.1 Comparative High-Yield Summary Table#

• Quick-reference matrix of rulers, clans, capitals, and exam facts.

10. Common Confusions and Memory Mnemonics#

10.1 Critical Distinctions for Exams#

• Common Confusions Clarified:
• 1. Paramara Bhoja vs. Pratihara Mihira Bhoja: Paramara Bhoja (1010–1055 CE) ruled Malwa from Dhar and wrote 84 treatises; Mihira Bhoja (836–885 CE) was a Gurjara-Pratihara emperor ruling from Kannauj holding the title Adivaraha.
• 2. First British Treaty in 1817: Karauli signed first on 9 November 1817; Tonk signed next on 15 November 1817; Kota signed on 26 December 1817.
• 3. Jat Dynasties: Bharatpur belonged to the Sinsinwar Jat clan; Dholpur belonged to the Bamraulia Jat clan (formerly of Gohad).
• 4. 1857 Revolt in Karauli vs. Dholpur: Karauli ruler Madan Pal actively sent troops to rescue the ruler of Kota; Dholpur ruler Bhagwant Singh was held captive by Gwalior rebels until Patiala troops freed him.
• 5. Shekha vs. Shardul Singh: Maharao Shekha (1433–1488 CE) founded Shekhawati; Shardul Singh (1730 CE) captured Jhunjhunu from Kaimkhanis and his 5 sons formed the Panchpana.

10.2 Memory Mnemonics#

• Mnemonic 1: Bha-Dhau-Ka-Ton-Jhu
• Formula: "Bha-Dhau-Ka-Ton-Jhu" = Bharatpur, Dholpur, Karauli, Tonk, Jhunjhunu.
• Captures the major regional eastern and central states in sequence.
• Mnemonic 2: Paramara Order (U-M-B-D)
• Formula: "U-M-B-D" = Upendra (founder) -> Munja (Tailapa II rival) -> Bhoja (polymath of Dhar) -> Dharavarsha (Abu hero).
• Mnemonic 3: Panchpana of Shekhawati
• Formula: "Na-Khe-Bi-Su-Dun" = Nawalgarh, Khetri, Bissau, Surajgarh, Dundlod.

11. Examination Practice and PYQ Status#

11.1 Topic Structure and Practice Exams#

• This chapter is supported by 60 carefully designed bilingual questions mapped into six targeted practice exams:
• • Set 1: Bharatpur Origins, Badan Singh and Maharaja Surajmal (5 Questions)
• • Set 2: Lohagarh, Battles and Dholpur State (15 Questions)
• • Set 3: Karauli and Tonk States (10 Questions)
• • Set 4: Jhunjhunu, Shekhawati and Panchpana (5 Questions)
• • Set 5: Parmar Dynasty Branches (5 Questions)
• • Set 6: Comprehensive Regional Mastery (20 Questions)
• Total: 60 MCQs with complete explanations in English and Hindi. No unverified PYQ claims are made in this series.

Open the linked exams below for questions, options, answers, and detailed explanations.

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